In Peru, the interplay of religion, and conservatism has created significant barriers to achieving gender equality - a fundamental pillar of sustainable development (OECD, 2022 ). Within this context, comprehensive sex education (CSE) emerges as both a local necessity and a component of a broader global movement for education and gender justice. Grounded in the principles of Global Education (GE) and Global Citizenship Education (GCE), CSE addresses critical challenges such as high rates ofsexual violence, teenage pregnancies, and systemic disparities that disproportionately affect marginalized communities(United Nations, 2015).
To truly engage with the principles of GE, we collaborated to merge our distinct perspectives. One of us, from Peru, brings an insider’s view, rooted in the cultural, social, and political realities that shape the lack of CSE in the country. The other, from Germany, provides a Global North perspective, critically analyzing how international frameworks can sometimes misalign with local realities. This dual lens allows us to examine barriers in Peru whilst exploring how GCE principles can bridge gaps between global frameworks and local contexts, fostering intercultural dialogue and collaborative solutions. The course has deepened our understanding of how education serves as a tool for fostering solidarity and challenging systemic injustices.
GE and GCE are transformative frameworks addressing the complexities of an interconnected world by fostering global awareness, responsibility, and social justice. GE, as described by Bourn (2020), emerges from efforts to promote citizenship, sustainable development, and moral education. It counters neoliberal policies by embedding values like equity, solidarity, and global responsibility (Henriksson, 2022). Over time, GE has evolved from raising awareness in the late 20th century to promoting critical engagement with global challenges, as reflected in the Pedagogy of Hope for Global Social Justice (Tarozzi & Bourn, 2024).
GCE, closely aligned with GE, equips learners to actively participate in shaping a just and sustainable world. Pashby et al. (2020) categorize its approaches into neoliberal (emphasizing employability), liberal (focusing on cosmopolitan ideals and dialogue), and critical (advocating for social justice and structural change). Andreotti (2006) highlights the importance of critical GCE in addressing systemic inequalities and power imbalances. Unlike "soft" approaches that may perpetuate paternalistic or superficial solutions, critical GCE challenges learners to engage deeply with the root causes of injustice, fostering structural change rather than merely encouraging individual actions. This essay adopts a critical GCE perspective, aiming to navigate the complexities of socio-cultural and systemic barriers in Peru to advocate for meaningful transformation through education.
Both GE and GCE provide a theoretical framework for understanding how education fosters critical thinking, global solidarity, and social transformation. This aligns closely with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of gender equality (SDG 5), quality education (SDG 4), and reduced inequalities (SDG 10; United Nations, 2015). Through this lens, CSE transcends its immediate context, positioning itself as a tool for empowering individuals to challenge systemic injustices and cultivate equitable societies.
Thus, this essay will reflect on the lessons learned throughout the course and apply them to the challenges of implementing CSE in Peru. Building on these insights, we aim to propose practical strategies to overcome the barriers to CSE implementation, particularly those rooted in religion and conservatism.
Peru is amongst the countries with the highest rates of gender-based violence (GBV), as reported in the 2023 Women, Peace, and Security Index (GIWPS & PRIO, 2023). In 2023 alone, 28,991 cases of sexual violence were reported, with half involving teenage girls. Of these, 11,994 were cases of rape, with 66% of the victims being children and adolescents (Amnesty International, 2024). Alongside this, teenage pregnancies remain high, with 1,354 girls under 15 giving birth in 2023. The spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including a 0.39% HIV prevalence rate amongst individuals aged 15-49, further highlights the public health crisis in Peru (DIGEMID, 2024).
The implementation of CSE in Peru is profoundly challenged by ideological resistance, particularly from conservative groupsrooted in religioustraditions(Konrad, 2022). Religion, especially the Catholic Church, yields significant influence over public discourse and policymaking. Despite Peru’ s constitutional secularism, the church’ s pervasive role in shaping societal norms often results in inconsistent separation between church and state, directly impacting education reforms (Konrad, 2022). This intersection of religion and politics underscores a broader struggle over who defines morality and cultural identity in the country.
A key example is the 2016 emergence of the conservative movement “Con Mis Hijos No Te Metas,” which opposed the Ministry of Education's proposal to include CSE in the curriculum (Proyecto de Ley N° 904-2021-CR; Defensoría del Pueblo, 2022). By framing these reforms as attacks on traditional family values and accusing them of "homosexualizing" children, the movement mobilized large sections of society, particularly amongst lower- and middle-class religious communities with limited access to comprehensive education (Arias & Jiménez, 2019). This framing weaponizes fear and misinformation, creating a moral panic that fuels resistance to any perceived disruption of established norms, a strategy often used to advance populist agendas and reinforce conservative social hierarchies (Court & Seymour, 2015; Zembylas, 2023).
The success of such movements reflects deeper structural issues. Conservative ideologies often dominate public discourse, leveraging the historical and cultural weight of religion in Peruvian society. This dominance translates into institutional resistance, as political leaders seeking electoral support are often reluctant to challenge powerful religious institutions. In effect, the alliance between religious conservatism and political pragmatism stifles meaningful education reform, particularly in areas like CSE that challenge patriarchal and heteronormative values (Court & Seymour, 2015).
Sexual education in Peru is now embedded within the Basic Education Curriculum (BCE), focusing on themes like gender equality, sexual rights, and non-violence. However, it does not comprehensively address critical areas outlined in UNESCO´s (2018) framework for CSE, such as consent, sexual orientation, contraception, and STI prevention, nor does it provide clear age-specific guidance, leading to inconsistent implementation (OECD, 2022). However, Dobson’s critique (2003) underscores the risks of applying global standards to local contexts without adaptation. Whilst international frameworks like UNESCO's or global metrics provide valuable benchmarks, they often oversimplify cultural and regional nuances, perpetuating a narrative of deficiency (Dobson 2003). This Western-centric lens can fail to address Peru’s unique socio-political and cultural realities, including the compounded challenges faced by Indigenous and rural communities, emphasizing the importance of localized, contextually sensitive solutions.
Cultural resistance in rural and Indigenous communities, shaped by deeply entrenched religious and traditional narratives, further complicates the implementation of global frameworks. CSE initiatives advocated by these frameworks are often perceived as foreign impositions, threatening cultural integrity (Court & Seymour, 2015). This alienation reinforces opposition to CSE and marginalizes local approaches to achieving sex education, casting them as less valid within global discourses (Zembylas, 2023).
Given the situational analysis, it is clear that executing CSE in Peru presents significant challenges. A study by Motta et al. (2017), which surveyed 61 schools across three regions, highlighted critical gaps in its implementation, including inconsistencies in delivery, inadequate teacher training, limited integration into curricula, and notable regional differences. These regional disparities may seem surprising from an outside perspective, as Peru is often viewed as a homogenous country shaped by Spanish colonialism. In reality, however, Peru is a multicultural and multilingual nation, home to over 55 officially recognized Indigenous groups across the Andes and Amazon, as well as Afro-Peruvian communities and international migrants (International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2023; HipLatina, 2024; Aguilar, 2023). This diversity underscores the critical need for culturally sensitive strategies that balance respect for local traditions with the promotion of universal human rights.
The varied lived experiences within the country emphasize the importance of tailoring CSE strategies to meet the unique needs of different communities. Without such an approach, CSE risks encountering increased resistance, potentially leading to worse outcomes, despite broader implementation. Drawing on lessons from this course, it is clear that addressing global justice issues in educational contexts requires not only a commitment to equity but also an understanding of how local ideologies shape the educational environment and resistance to change. Only by engaging with these tensions can we develop strategies that are both transformative and contextually relevant.
A key focus for improving CSE implementation in Peru is adequate, culturally sensitive teacher training. Teachers must receive training tailored to their students’ cultural and social contexts, including addressing the resistance and misconceptions surrounding CSE in Peru (UNESCO & Wisbaum, 2022). Pre-service training for prospective teachers is a foundational step, whilst in-service training for active educators offers another avenue but can be challenging in remote areas. For isolated regions, a "train-the-trainer" model – where a core group of educators is trained to disseminate knowledge – can help bridge the gap (UNESCO & Wisbaum, 2022). Effective training equips teachers to adopt inclusive pedagogical practices that respect diverse viewpoints and encourage critical thinking.
This training should go beyond technical knowledge, fostering critical engagement with curricula and frameworks (Andreotti, 2006). Instead of promoting a single "best practice," it should recognize that CSE must be adapted to diverse contexts. Teachers should be introduced to global frameworks, such as that from the WHO, alongside other frameworks and GCE discourses. This approach empowers teachers to critically evaluate and select the perspectives that best align with the contexts they work. A key component of this training is the development of critical literacy, as outlined by Andreotti (2006). Critical literacy allows educators to reflect on how their own beliefs and experiences shape their teaching. Without this reflexivity, teachers risk reinforcing harmful belief systems, undermining the goals of CSE, and failing to connect their practice to the diverse realities of their students (Dobson, 2003).
Recognizing that not all teachers will have the time or resources to create context-sensitive materials, providing access to high-quality, adaptable teaching resources is crucial. When such resources are unavailable, educators often create their own, which can inadvertently embed personal biases (UNESCO & Wisbaum, 2022). A potential solution is the use of digital platforms to distribute materials that reflect Peru’s diverse realities. Developing these resources collaboratively with input from educators, communities, and other stakeholders – ensures balanced representation. This collaborative approach not only enriches the content but also helps reduce resistance by making participants feel heard and respected.
Religious leaders can also play a vital role in designing materials and engaging in broader discussions about CSE implementation. As noted earlier, overcoming resistance from religious leaders is a critical challenge. Motta et al. (2017) found that only 11% of religious leaders actively collaborate with CSE efforts, highlighting the need for respectful dialogue. Principles of interfaith dialogue can be an effective strategy for bridging conservative and liberal views, emphasizing shared values and mutual respect over conversion or confrontation (Rautionmaa & Kallioniemi, 2017). Reframing CSE to align with shared religious values, such as promoting healthy relationships and preventing teenage pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases, can further reduce opposition (UNESCO et al., 2018). Incorporating principles of spiritual global citizenship, which promote openness and mutual respect, can strengthen the connection between CSE and religious perspectives, fostering collaboration (Golmohamad, 2008).
Another important collaborator in promoting CSE is non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Their role was emphasized in the course, where their materials were utilized for educational activities. NGOs provide expertise, amplify diverse voices, and offer alternative spaces for advocacy and support (Bourn, 2020). However, large international NGOs often rely on standardized strategies that may overshadow the unique needs of specific contexts, such as Peru. Their approaches, designed to fit global missions, can prioritize issues from the Global North, neglecting Peru’s immediate educational needs (Bourn, 2020). For instance, implementing complex frameworks proposed by organizations like the WHO may be an ultimate goal but could overwhelm local efforts at this stage.
To address these concerns, it can be argued that partnering with local NGOs is crucial since they have a deeper understanding of the multi-faceted challenges of CSE in Peru. Promsex, a Peruvian NGO specializing in sexual and reproductive rights, is an example. They have been at the forefront of promoting CSE and addressing resistance from conservative sectors. Promsex’s work includes educating marginalized communities, providing access to essential services, and advocating for policy reforms related to sexual and reproductive health (Promsex, 2023).
In conclusion, this essay has highlighted the complex challenges of implementing CSE in Peru, shaped by cultural and religious barriers. Grounded in the principles of GE and GCE, we emphasized the importance of a critical and context-sensitive approach that involves collaboration with diverse stakeholders, including educators, religious leaders, local NGO and local communities, to ensure that global frameworks are adapted and align with local realities. From the course, we learned that whilst global education frameworks are intended to be universal and provide valuable guidance, their effectiveness depends on adaptation to local social, cultural and political context. Contrarily, a one-size-fits-all approach risks increasing resistance and alienation, which undermines the intended goals and basic principles of GCE. Thus, taking into account Peru's multicultural reality, it is essential to ensure the culturally-sensitive and effective implementation of CSE to address local health problems and gender inequalities. REFERENCES
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Reflection on collaboration:
Working together on this essay was a very enriching experience. From the start, this course inspired us to explore a topic that was both meaningful and personally relevant. The recent cases of sexual violence committed by teachers against students in the Awajún-Wampis indigenous Amazonian community, where systemic barriers, language differences, and geographical isolation obstruct justice, particularly resonated with us (Gutiérrez, 2023). We were both shocked and wanted to explore this further, asking ourselves why does this keep happening in Peru? Why isn't the government helping them? Why is nothing being done about it? Hence, by examining this issue through a global education lens, we believed that combining a local and Global North perspective would offer a nuanced analysis and attempt to understand why this issue is perpetuated and try our best to offer solutions. As good friends, we truly valued the opportunity to collaborate, support each other, and tackle such a challenging topic. Throughout, we maintained open communication, shared responsibilities, and encouraged one another, always striving for the highest standard whilst recognizing the importance of both rigor and mutual trust in our work.
Gutiérrez, M. (2023). Violencia sexual y justicia comunal en pueblos indígenas Awajún – Wampis, región Amazonas. Revista de Psicología y Gestión del Conocimiento, 2(2), 1-14. https://revistas.unitru.edu.pe/index.php/PGM/article/view/3018/3377
About The Author
Matías Molfino, born and raised in Lima, Peru, is a psychologist with a passion for education and mental health. Having lived and worked across four continents, he is deeply interested in how education systems function worldwide. He believes bridging the gap between learning and mental health is key to student success. In addition to his academic pursuits, he enjoys endurance sports, bouldering, volleyball, dancing, and writing—his novel Chullo Desnudo is published.
Christina, from Stuttgart, Germany, has a background in special needs education and is committed to making educational systems more equitable and inclusive. She is particularly interested in addressing structural barriers in education and supporting diverse learners. A passionate language learner, she enjoys immersing herself in different cultures, with Spanish being a recent focus—making the research for this article both a challenge and a rewarding experience. Outside of academics, she loves traveling, exploring new perspectives, and staying active through sports. Both met during their master’s program and have become great friends, enjoying the opportunity to collaborate on this project and combine their perspectives on global education.
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